Feeling the risk, living the risk: women in

the maquiladoras in a border city in Mexico

Sintiéndose en riesgo, viviendo en riesgo: mujeres en las maquiladoras

Recibido: febrero 12 de 2019 | Revisado: mayo 15 de 2019 | Aceptado: junio 18 de 2019

Ulises Mendoza Arvizo1

Claudia Gómez García

Marie Leiner

ABSTRACT

In some parts of the world, women are exposed to atypical acts of

violence that include crimes due to war, terrorism, and community

violence. Another less prevalent type of violence, not often

studied due to its uniqueness, is unpunished female homicides in

high-crime cities. Women living under this unusual circumstance may

suffer a multitude of effects from “feeling at risk” as a result of

direct exposure to community violence and media exposure to female

homicide, and by “living the risk” from the effects of domestic

violence. These additional effects should be considered when

implementing preventive programs in high-crime cities.

Keywords: Fear of crime, maquiladoras, unsolved women

homicides

RESUMEN

En algunas partes del mundo, las mujeres están expuestas a casos atípicos

de violencia que incluyen crímenes debido a la guerra, el terrorismo o la

violencia comunitaria. Otros tipos menos comunes de exposición a la

violencia, incluyen homicidios de mujeres sin resolver en ciudades con

alta criminalidad. Las mujeres que viven en estas circunstancias

pueden sufrir una multitud de efectos por

“sentirse en riesgo” por la violencia que prevalece, la impunidad

y las noticias acerca de los crímenes. De forma adicional, algunas de

ellas “están en riesgo” por los efectos de la violencia doméstica.

Palabras clave: Miedo a ser víctima del crimen,

maquiladoras, homicidios de mujeres sin resolver

1 Instituto de Ciencias Sociales y Administración, Universidad

Autónoma de Ciudad Juárez, Ciudad Juárez, Chihuahua, México

marie.leiner@ttuhsc.edu

DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.24039/cv201971343

Cátedra Villarreal | Lima, Perú | V. 7 | N. 1 | Enero - Junio | 2019 | e-ISSN 2311-2212 7

Background

Domestic violence in developing countries has evolved

from an issue of relative obscurity to one of primary

concern in the last few deca- des (Miller, 2005; Nasir &

Hyder, 2003; Wenzel, Monson, & Johnson, 2004).

Although women in developing countries experience

several types of violence, domestic violence is the most

stu- died because of its pervasiveness (Stover, 2005;

Waltermaurer, Butsashvili, Avaliani, Samuels, & McNutt,

2013). Other types of violence are not evenly distributed

across all neighborhoods and/or demographic groups and,

in some se- ttings, women are exposed to short- or long-

term atypical acts of violence (Asai & Arnold, 2003; Carli,

Telion, & Baker, 2003; Gracia & Tomas, 2014; Kennedy,

Charlesworth, & Chen, 2004; Pain, 2014; Vlahov et al.,

2002). Most of the available studies about this uncommon

ex- posure have concentrated on the women and children

affected by violent crime in the society due to war,

terrorism, community violence, and fear of crime

(Aisenberg & Ell, 2005; Cox, John- son, & Coyle, 2015;

Nicolaidis, Curry, McFar- land, & Gerrity, 2004; Wong,

Shumway, Flentje, & Riley, 2016).

If we consider that these exposures to violen- ce are not

independent but instead interlinked, it will be helpful to

determine if there is a relationship between women who

feel at risk and women who actually are victimized in an

abu- sive relationship, and are thus, “living the risk”. The

significance of this association will help to understand

1) the emotional layers covering an abusive relationship 2)

a tangible association between feeling at risk and living

the risk (iden- tified by questioning the effect of

feeling at risk because it has less stigma associated with

it) and 3) the possibility that the appropriate interven-

tion may reduce the effects of feeling at risk and help

women to gain understanding of problems involving

abusive relationships.

In addition, the collection of data about this

uncommon exposure offers an opportunity to study

the consequences of victimization and fear of crime on

people’s lives, which have reported debated results

(Evans, Fyfe, & Herbert, 1992; Fox, Nobles, & Piquero,

2009; Golant, 1984; Krulichová, 2018; Low &

Espelage, 2014; May, Vartanian, & Virgo, 2002). For

example, some criminologists report that this fear is

irrational and that those most likely to be victimized are

least afraid, and viceversa (Faramarzi, Esmailzadeh, &

Mosavi, 2005; Maxfield, 1984; Smith, 1985; Tran,

Nguyen, & Fisher, 2016; Young, 1988a).

During a visit of the Inter-American Commission on

Human Rights in 2003 to Ciudad Juarez, Chihuahua,

Mexico, the authorities presented information about the

killings of 268 women and girls since 1993 (IACHR,

2003). Most of the victims were young women or girls,

workers in the maquiladoras, or maquilas (Mexican

assembly plants/export-processing factories), who were

sexually abused before being brutally killed. The

authorities reported that more than 250 missing person

reports filed during that period remained unsolved.

Representatives of the civil society presented a letter

signed by 5,000 individuals who demanded an

effective response to the situation. The letter

expressed that women living in this city since 1993 have

been afraid to walk the distance between their homes and

their jobs. Since 2003, the number of unsolved murders of

women has increased, and the city has been recognized

worldwide for its maquiladoras, unpunished killings, drug

cartels, and pollution (Ensalaco, 2006B; Livingston, 2004;

Márquez-Vargas, 2017; Pantaleo, 2010).

In this study, we explored the relationship between

feeling at risk and living the risk (victims of abusive

relationships) in two groups of women living in Ciudad

Juarez, Chihuahua, Mexico. Women living in this city are

exposed to information about hundreds of unpunished

female homicides. We compared women’s fear of crime

between two different groups of working women: 1)

maquiladora workers (Maquiladora group), who have been

the main target of these homicides and 2) college students

(College group).

In order to define more fully this psychological

distress, we examined risk factors associated with

present/past exposure to domestic violence. Those

who were, or had been, victims of domestic violence

had significantly greater fear of becoming victims of

homicide. In addition, working for assembling plants

significantly increased the women’s fear of

becoming victims of crime. victims of crime.

Method

Study design

This study involved a convenient cross-sectional sample

of 716 women workers (ages 17 to 45), living in Ciudad

Juarez, Chihuahua, Mexico. The women came from two

different groups: 502 Women working in the maquiladora,

and 214 college students working in non-maquiladora

industries. The occupations of the participants classified

as operators and non-operators

(non-professional/ semiprofessional jobs). The sample

of maquiladora workers was collected from seven

different organizations using a self-response questionnaire

while workers were on break or at lunch outside of the work

place. The college students were interviewed during

their attendance at the state University. Participation

was voluntary, and the internal review board (IRB) of

the University approved the study. Business students

collected the information as part of a larger class project

during their last semester in the University of Ciudad

Juarez, Chihuahua, Mexico (UACJ).

Study setting and population

Ciudad Juarez is located on the border of the United

States and shares with its neighbor in the United States

(El Paso, Texas) the largest metropolitan area on the

border between Mexico and the United States. This city

has many maquiladoras that are owned by foreign

(usually United States) capital. They were first

established in 1965 on Mexico’s northern border.

These companies usually employ low-paid young

Mexican workers to assemble U.S. produced parts into

goods to be sold on the U.S. market. Ciudad Juarez

contains one of the largest concentrations of

maquiladora workers in the country.

Many of the maquiladora workers are migrants from

the north, center, or south of Mexico who move to

Ciudad Juarez. Moving from extreme poverty in their

original habitat, these women move to Ciudad Juarez

where they pool their resources to live together, with

relatives, or with friends of their family.

Questionnaire

The questionnaire used in this study was a modification

of a questionnaire used by Wenzel et. al., (Wenzel

et al., 2004). The modified questionnaire included

demographic information and six questions related to

exposure to violence. The questionnaire covered

key areas of present physical abuse, threats, and

harassment, as well as a history of abuse in the three

areas. In addition, the questionnaire examined fear of

crime (only violent crime was included)

Questions included:

Present abuse or aggression:

• Emotional abuse (non-physical abuse):

Are you in a relationship where a person

offends you continuously? (e.g., calls you names,

insults you, but does not physically hurt you).

• Physical abuse question:

Are you in a relationship with a person that

physically hurts you? (e.g., slaps, hits, punches,

kicks, pushes, rapes or other violent acts)

• Threat question - included intimidation

or threats:

Are you in a relationship with a person who threatens

you? (e.g., threatens you, your children, your family,

your friends, or your property or that of others)

• Harassment question included power and

control dynamics, such as the use of

economic power and isolation to control:

Are you in a relationship with a person who harasses

or controls you against your will? (e.g., controls

your access to money or transportation, isolates you

from family or friends, interferes with your job, etc.)

• Past abuse or aggression:

In the past, have you ever been in a relationship with

a person who has done any of the things mentioned

in the above questions?

• Feeling at risk:

Do you feel that you can become a victim of violent

acts (murder, attempted murder, or physical

victimization including severe injuries)?

Data analysis

Summary statistics included frequency tables for

categorical variables. Binary logistic regression was

used to measure associations between feeling at risk for

demographic variables, nd present/past exposure to

domestic violence.

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Results

Of the 716 working women who participated in this

study, 70% (502) worked in the maquiladora and 30%

(214) were college students working in non-maquiladora

industries. See Table 1 for descriptive statistics and results of

comparative tests. Compared to women

working in the maquiladoras, college students were

significantly younger and more likely to work in

semi-professional jobs. The College group women

felt at risk of being victims of acts of violence, 58

(27.1%) and Maquiladora group 172 (34.3%).

Tabla 1

The characteristics of the study sample (n = 716)

Maquiladora

Women N (%)

College

Women N (%)

Total (%)

Age

17-26

164 (32.7)

160 (74.8)

324 (45.3)

27-36

178 (35.5)

44 (20.6)

222 (31.0)

= or > 37

160 (31.9)

10 (4.7)

170 (23.7)

Total

502 (100.0)

214 (100.0)

716 (100.0)

Occupation

Semiprofessional

72 (14.3)

101 (47.2)

173 (24.2)

Unskilled Manual

430 (85.6)

113 (52.8)

543 (75.8)

Total

502 (100.0)

214 (100.0)

716 (100.0)

To investigate whether the College group and the

Maquiladora group differ on feeling at risk or not, a

chi square statistic was used. Pearson Chi square results

indicate that the College group and Maquiladora group

were not significantly different on whether they feel at

risk (X2= 3.5, df=1, N=716, p=0.06). Phi, which indicates

the strength of the association between the two

variables, is 0.07 and, thus, the effect size was

considered smaller than typical according to Cohen

(Cohen, 1988). Reports of feeling at risk, current abuse,

and history of abuse, were significant (Table 2).

Tabla2

Percentage of women reporting feeling at risk: College women and Maquiladora

Maquiladora

College

Women N (%)

Group

172

(34.3)

58 (27.1)

0.06

Current Abuse

Physical

148

(30.3)

49 (22.9)

0.05

Threats

64 (13.0)

48 (22.4)

<.001

Harassment

(4.3)

12 (5.6)

History of Abuse

Physical, threats or/and

harassment

98 (20.1)

59 (12.5)

<.001

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Unadjusted odds ratios indicate significant differences

with regard to feeling at risk and current abuse: physical

abuse OR = 2.6 CI (1.8-3.6) p<.001; threats OR = 2.5 CI (1.7-

3.8) p<.001; and harassment OR=3.4 CI (1.7-7.0)

p<.001. History of abuse was also significant OR=3.4

CI (2.3-5.0) p<.001. Feeling at risk between groups was

borderline OR=1.4 CI (1.0-2.0) p=0.06 (Ta- ble 3).

Tabla 3

Women reporting feeling at risk and exposure to abuse/aggression

Group

Current Abuse

Unadjusted Odds Ratio

(CI)

1.4 (1.0-2.0)

Physically hurt including slaps, hits, punches,

2.6 (1.8-3.6)

<.001

licks, pushes, rapes, or anything else

Threats toward you, your children, your

2.5 (1.7-3.8)

<.001

family, your property, or any others

Harassment including control of money,

transportation, isolates you from family or

3.4 (1.7-7.2)

<.001

friends, interferes with your job

History of abuse

Including physical, threats or harassment

3.4 (2.3-5.0)

<.001

A logistic regression analysis was conducted with fear of

crime as the dependent variable and group, age, occupation,

education, and present/ past history of domestic abuse as

predictor variables. With a total of 697 cases analyzed, the

full model was significantly reliable (chi square 84.9, df =

9 p<.0001). This model accounted for between 11.5% and

the 16% of the variance of fear of crime, with 91.1% of the

women not feeling fear of crime successfully predicted and

28.6% successfully predicted.

Overall 70.7% of predictions were accurate. Table 4 gives

coefficients and the Wald statistic and probability

values for each of the predictor variables. The results

show that group, present physical abuse, threats, and past

abuse reliably predicted fear of crime. The values of

the coe-fficients reveal that each unit (present

physical abuse, threats, and past abuse) increase in group

Maquiladora vs. College students is associated with an

increase in the odds of fear of crime by a factor of 1.77,

2.5, 2.8, and 2.6, respectively.

Discussion

Violence against women occurs within and across all

socioeconomic, demographic, and geographic regions

of the world (Babu & Kar, 2009; Renzetti, 1994). Some

conditions exacerbate the exposure to violence against

women and include life stressors; community violence;

or unusual conditions due to war, terrorist attacks, or

unsolved female murders.

Many of the dynamics related to domestic violence

that trap women in violent relationships cross

boundaries that include political, socioeconomic,

demographic, or geographic perspectives. These

dynamics include societal and community attitudes

toward violence, isolation, fear of exposure, lack of

resources to facilitate help to women and children

victims of violence, and lack of sufficient

accessible services for victims of violence. The

impact of violence is seldom studied in the context of

other risk factors of mental distress, and fear of being a

victim of violence from living in a higher risk area.

This study examined the relationship between the fear

of becoming a victim of violence and the exposure to

present and past acts of violence and aggression

adjusting for demographic and social characteristics.

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Tabla 4

Multiple logistic regression models predicting feeling at risk

Adjusted Odds Ratio (CI)

Group (Women College students vs.

1.8(1.1-3.2)

0.03

Women maquiladora

Occupation

Semiprofessional jobs

1.0

Non-professional

0.9(0.6-1.6)

0.8

Age (per 10 year incremental increase)

1.0(0.9-1.0)

0.24

Education college vs. not college

1.0(0.8-1.3)

0.81

Current Abuse

Physically hurt including slaps, hits,

punches, licks, pushes, rapes, or anything

3.1(1.2-8.2)

0.02

else

Threats toward you, your children, your

2.0(0.7-5.7)

0.22

family, your property, or any others

Harassment including control of money,

transportation, isolates you from family

1.2 (0.5-2.9)

0.66

or friends, interferes with your job

History of abuse

Including physical, threats or harassment

3.0 (1.9-4.8)

<.001

Feeling at risk seems to be associated with living the

risk. The results suggested that a high percentage of

women 32.1% from both different groups felt at risk

(fear of crime), which may be a natural response to

the conditions that prevail in the city. However,

after adjustment by group, and past/present history of

violence, women in the Maquiladora group felt more at

risk of becoming a victim of violent crime. In addition,

women that were present/past victims of violence felt

more at risk in general. Given the fact that the trauma

caused by domestic violence may also involve

cumulative effects of other traumas (e.g. previous

child victimization, previous battering, etc.), it is

necessary to consider that these women lived in fear,

which is very distressful.

Violence has long been considered as a threat to the

health of women, a stressful experience that requires

psychological adaptation, and an experience that may

give rise to psychological consequences (Modi, Palmer,

& Armstrong, 2014; Sorenson & Saftlas, 1994).

All women who participated in this study were workers,

who may be helped with programs that target the effects

of the exposure to violence in the city. By addressing this

issue, there is a high probability of benefit to women

that are present or past victims of domestic violence.

Feeling at risk of violence may be exacerbated by

incidents that have occurred in the past years in Ciudad

Juarez, as well as the attention the media gives to the

events. After the attention lessens, these women

have to live in a city that is known for its maquiladoras,

unpunished killings, drug cartels, and pollution

(Ensalaco, 2006A; Livingston, 2004; Márquez-Vargas,

2017; Pantaleo, 2010).

Maquiladoras benefit from the work of these

women and have historically promoted educational and

training programs that can very easily be

diversified to also empower them. All these

maquiladoras have staff nurses that have or can

acquire training to implement programs that increase

women’s personal strengths and inner resources.

12 Cátedra Villarreal | Lima, Perú | V. 7 | N. 1 | Enero - Junio | 2019 | e-ISSN 2311-2212

Women who suffer from problems caused by of

the fear of violence in the city can benefit greatly from

educational, preventive programs at work. In addition,

these programs enable easier recognition of the victims due

to the impersonal nature of accepting feeling at risk instead

of accepting to be a victim of domestic violence.

There are some limitations to this study de-

rived from the questionnaire used to collect the

information. Detection of present domestic violence is

usually underestimated using questionnaires, thus, there

is a possibility that the risk found is even greater than

that shown.

Acknowledgements

We thank the students of the Autonomous University of

Ciudad Juarez for their interest on the women living in

Ciudad Juarez, Chihuahua, Mexico.

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